21世纪初以来，美国全球研发的主要挑战是反离岸外包立法。特别是2003—2006年，以及2009—2010年联邦层面的斗争，有组织的劳工主导了一系列行动来降低离岸外包的程度，而不是完全停止这种行为。总的来说，这些努力集中在税收和贸易政策上，而不是出口管制。虽然重点不仅仅在于高技能工作岗位，但是许多提案都会使高科技公司的海外研发工作变得更加复杂。
高科技公司一直担心反对离岸外包运动，他们通过高效的行动来限制其影响。通过与其他商业团体合作，高科技公司在与劳工的斗争中取得了很大成功。2004年初，国会通过立法限制政府合同工作在当年接下来的时间内的外包，高科技公司在联邦级别遭受了较小的挫折，但他们成功地阻止了这一变化成为永久性的立法。高科技公司在2010年8月遭遇了一次小规模的挫折，当时它们内部的混乱导致国际公司税制发生了微小的变化。然而，在随后的2010年、2012年和2014年，科技公司帮助击败了联邦反离岸外包法案。在美国，2003—2006年引入了许多反离岸外包法案，但HTC及其商业盟友的阻止让其中大部分都没有成为法律。在新泽西州，通过的限制性最强的法律出现在非比寻常的情况下，这使科技公司很难取得成功。因此，美国对离岸外包主要保持开放态度，这一结果与第2章概述的理论吻合。
在这种情况下，可选解释是如何奏效的呢？战略性霸权假设预测，如果这样做是可行的并且成本更低，美国将限制与中印两国的合作。就可行性而言，在这种情况下，限制合作肯定比限制移民更加困难。美国政府可以监控和监管合法移民，但企业到外国投资很难管理，特别是当大公司在海外保留充足的资金时。尽管如此，美国联邦和州政府确实拥有可用于解决离岸外包的工具，但它们不会轻易使用。虽然专家在本章讨论的各种法案的经济影响上存在分歧，但是显而易见的是，奥巴马政府正在积极地应对其中几项法案，其中一些法案承诺会增加联邦收入。相比之下，反离岸外包立法对中国和印度没有明显的好处，因此很难将成本分配视为决定性因素。
在这种情况下，舆论假设显然缺乏支持。虽然公众舆论通常站在劳工一边，但是其政治效用有限。如前所述，相当多的公众担心2004年的离岸外包，也是在当年多德的修正案被打败了。在2010年中期选举之前，公众舆论也有利于反离岸外包立法，但此时通过反离岸外包立法的努力也失败了。
优先党派假设也很难找到很多支持的证据。在这种观点中，当民主党占据主导地位时，劳工反对HTC的能力应该远远大于支持商业的共和党。然而，在这段时间内，无论哪一方更为突出，劳工基本上是不成功的。即便在2009年和2010年，当民主党控制政府部门和国会两院时，情况也是如此。虽然民主党确实试图在2010年通过《创造美国就业，中止离岸外包法案》，但这一努力在参议院被击败——有四名民主党人和由民主党转为独立人士的约瑟夫·利伯曼投票反对。
现状假设更加有用，它是我在本章中进行的利益集团分析的补充。高科技公司在很大程度上取得了成功，不仅因为它们的力量比有组织的劳工大很多，而且还因为它们在劳工试图改变现状的同时捍卫现状。2010年、2012年和2014年，联邦反离岸外包法案的失败就很好地证明了这种情况。这些法案都在参议院中夭折，其中绝大多数人需要前进，这使得高科技利益集团特别容易阻止变革。即使如此，在有些情况下，高科技公司一开始就成功地阻止了立法被引入，如成功搁置了2009年奥巴马税制改革提议。这表明，对现状的偏见是造成这种情况的部分原因，但不是全部原因。
本章中提出的证据对两种联盟力量假设有着截然不同的含义。第一种假设——当企业和学术机构都积极参与时，HTC是最成功的——并未得到证实。尽管学术界没有参与，HTC还是在很大程度上取得了成功。相比之下，第二种假设——关于其他企业的支持程度——得到了证实。高科技公司显然与其他商业集团进行了结盟，包括全国制造商协会和美国商会，这有助于解释为什么在这种情况下，HTC非常成功。但值得注意的是，即使是这个令人印象深刻的商业联盟也遭遇了一些失败。这一结果与前一章所述的外国学生争夺战中的结果形成鲜明对比。在前一章的情况下，HTC拥有的盟友较少，但面临的反对较少，其胜利也更具决定性。
[1] 关于CFIUS的更多信息，参见James K. Jackson, The Committee on Foreign Investment in the United States (CFIUS) (Washington, DC: Congressional Research Service, 2014)。
[2] Harris Miller, president, Information Technology Association of America, 1995 to 2005, interviewed by author, July 1, 2015.
[3] Robert T. Kudrle and Davis B. Bobrow, “U.S. Policy Toward Foreign Direct Investment,” World Politics 34, no. 3 (April 1982): 367.
[4] Andrew D. Gross and Michael S. Schadewald,“Prospects for U.S. Corporate Tax Reform,” The CPA Journal 82, no. 1 ( January 1, 2012).
[5] Gross and Schadewald, “Prospects for U.S. Corporate Tax Reform.”
[6] “U.S. Led Effort Reaches ‘Major Breakthrough’ to Expand Information Technology Agreement,” Office of the United States Trade Representative, July 2015, https://ustr.gov/about-us/policy-offices/press-office/press-releases/2015/july/us-led-effort-reaches-%E2%80%98major.
[7] 例如，参见recommendations in Daniel Marschall and Laura Clawson, Sending Jobs Overseas: The Cost to America’s Economy and Working Families (Washington, DC: Working America and the AFL-CIO, 2010)。
[8] Hugo Meijer, Trading with the Enemy: The Making of US Export Control Policy Toward the People’s Republic of China (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2016), 165–97.
[9] 对民用和军用仍然控制的技术是辐射强化的微处理器，因为它们经常用于武器系统。
[10] Christopher A. Padilla, vice-president, government and regulatory affairs, IBM, interviewed by author, March 25, 2016.帕迪拉还指出，当出口管制成为问题时，IBM已经提前与美国官员就特定技术，特定的最终用户，以解决任何潜在的问题进行了讨论。
[11] Bill Greenwalt, “We Haven’t Won Yet on Export Control Reforms,” Breaking Defense, November 21, 2013, http://breakingdefense.com/2013/11/we-havent-won-yet-on-export-control-reforms/; Doug Cameron and Julian E. Barnes, “Pentagon Criticizes Contractors’ R&D,” Wall Street Journal, November 21, 2014.
[12] Andrew B. Kennedy, “Unequal Partners: U.S. Collaboration with China and India in Research and Development,” Political Science Quarterly 132, no. 1 (2017), 71.
[13] Kennedy, “Unequal Partners,” 72.
[14] 引用自Steve Lohr, “New Economy: Offshore Jobs in Technology; Opportunity or a Threat?” New York Times, December 22, 2003, www.nytimes.com/2003/12/22/business/new-economy-offshore-jobs-in-technology-opportunity-or-a-threat.html。
[15] 引用自Steve Lohr, “Many New Causes for Old Problem of Jobs Lost Abroad,” New York Times, February 15, 2004。
[16] Ron Hira, “Implications of Offshore Outsourcing” (Paper presented at the Globalization, Employment, and Economic Development Workshop, Sloan Workshop Series in Industry Studies, Rockport, MA, January 3, 2004), 4–5.
[17] Alec Gallup and Frank Newport, The Gallup Poll: Public Opinion 2004 (Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield, 2006), 110.
[18] Joseph I. Lieberman, Offshore Outsourcing and America’s Competitive Edge: Losing Out in the High Technology R&D and Services Sectors (Washington, DC: Office of Senator Joseph I. Lieberman, May 11, 2004), 5.
[19] Lieberman, “Offshore Outsourcing and America’s Competitive Edge,” 16.
[20] William Reinsch, “What Is to Be Done on Trade?” Stimson Spotlight, June 7, 2016, www.stimson.org/content/what-be-done-trade. 赖因施（Reinsch）于2001—2016年担任国家对外贸易委员会（NFTC）主席，当时他还是中美经济与安全审查委员会的成员。在加入NFTC之前，赖因施曾担任美国商务部出口管理副秘书长和国会的立法助理。
[21] Jonathan Weisman, “Bush, Adviser Assailed for Stance on ‘Offshoring’ Jobs,” Washington Post, February 11, 2004.
[22] Alan S. Blinder, “Offshoring: The Next Industrial Revolution?” Foreign Affairs 85, no. 2 (2006): 113–28.
[23] J. Bradford Jensen, Global Trade in Services: Fear, Facts, and Offshoring (Washington, DC: Peterson Institute for International Economics, 2011).
[24] Gary Clyde Hufbauer, Theodore H. Moran, and Lindsay Oldenski, Outward Foreign Direct Investment and US Exports, Jobs, and R&D: Implications for US Policy (Washington, DC: Peterson Institute for International Economics, 2013).
[25] “IEEE Advocates Limits on Offshore Outsourcing,” Information Week, March 15, 2004, www.informationweek.com/ieee-advocates-limits-on-offshore-outsourcing/d/d-id/1023812.
[26] Melissa Block, “Analysis: Industry Groups Fight Anti-outsourcing Legislation,” National Public Radio: All Things Considered, March 5, 2004.
[27] Michael Schroeder,“Business Coalition Battles Outsourcing Backlash,” Wall Street Journal, March 1, 2004, www.wsj.com/articles/SB107809268846542227.
[28] Schroeder, “Business Coalition Battles Outsourcing Backlash.”
[29] Block, “Analysis: Industry Groups Fight Anti-outsourcing Legislation.”
[30] Ben Worthen, “Regulations: What to Worry About,” CIO, June 15, 2004.
[31] American Federation of Labor and Congress of Industrial Organizations (AFL-CIO), “Summary of Activities Regarding Off-Shore Outsourcing, June 2003–May 2004,” Department for Professiona Employees, AFL-CIO, 2004, http://dpeaflcio.org/archives/legislative-reports-2/summary-of-activities-regarding-off-shore-outsourcing-june-2003-may-2004/.
[32] 特例是允许在美国境外进行的工作。参见Wilson Dizard, “New Law Will Curb Offshoring of Federal IT Work,” Government Computer News, February 23, 2004。
[33] Harris Miller, interview.
[34] 引用自Shumita Sharma, “US Offshore Outsourcing Ban Sparks Fears of Similar Laws,” Dow Jones International Newswires, January 30, 2004。
[35] Harris Miller, interview.
[36] AFL-CIO, “Summary of Activities Regarding Off-Shore Outsourcing.”
[37] Martin Vaughan and Susan Davis, “Senate Ends Corporate Tax Debate for Now, OKs Outsourcing Deal,” Congress Daily, March 5, 2004.
[38] Lori Simpson, Engineering Aspects of Offshore Outsourcing (Alexandria, VA: National Society of Professional Engineers, August 6, 2004), 3, www.wise-intern.org/journal/2004/wise2004-lorisimpsonfinalpaper.pdf.
[39] 虽然多德的原始法案允许总统认证的契约的国家安全例外，但这些变化使得机构负责人有广泛的权力来确定哪些契约是出于国家安全的目的。此外，新的语言使得这些限制取决于商务部的年度认证，即限制所造成的美国失业人数不超过他们保留的工作岗位数量。最后，新语言豁免了国防部和国土安全部，情报机构以及能源部的国家安全计划。参见Vaughan and Davis, “Senate Ends Corporate Tax Debate for Now, OKs Outsourcing Deal”。
[40] Jobs and Trade Network, “Jobs and Trade Network to Hold Press Luncheon with U.S. Sen. Dodd: National Fair Trade Group to Advocate Against Outsourcing Policies,” Economic Policy Institute, February 20, 2004.
[41] Brian Tumulty, “Small Manufacturers Aim Buy American Challenge at U.S. Job Losses,” Gannett News Service, October 31, 2003, http://global.factiva.com/redir/default.aspx?P=sa&an=GNS0000020040107dzav000j7&cat=a&ep=ASE.
[42] Ed Frauenheim, “Tech Professionals Group Wary of Offshoring,” CNET News, March 18, 2004.
[43] Harris Miller, interview.
[44] Harris Miller, interview.
[45] Keith Koffler, “Business Coalition Rewrites Lexicon for Jobs ‘Outsourcing,’” Congress Daily, March 2, 2004.
[46] Gail Repsher Emery, “Industry Fights Dodd Legislation,” Newsbytes News Network, April 15, 2004.
[47] Repsher Emery, “Industry Fights Dodd Legislation.”
[48] Mary Dalrymple, “Senate Passes Corporate Tax Bill,” Associated Press, May 12, 2004.
[49] “US’s Grassley—‘Difficult’ to Get Quick Action on Tax Bill,” Market News International, June 22, 2004.
[50] Jonathan Weisman and Mark Kaufman, “Tax-Cut Bill Draws White House Doubts: Corporate Provisions Go Beyond ‘Core Objective,’ Treasury Secretary Says,” Washington Post, October 5, 2004.
[51] Paul Almeida, president, AFL-CIO Department for Professional Employees, interview by author, August 21, 2015.
[52] AFL-CIO, “Outsourcing America,” AFL-CIO, March 11, 2004, www.aflcio.org/About/Exec-Council/EC-Statements/Outsourcing-America.
[53] 美国独立战争期间的叛徒。——译者注
[54] “Kerry Tax Plan Proposes to Slow Loss of US Jobs Overseas,” Dow Jones International News, March 26, 2004.
[55] David J. Lynch, “Does Tax Code Encourage U.S. Companies to Cut Jobs at Home? Presidential Candidates Target Corporate Tax Breaks for Offshoring,” USA Today, March 21, 2008.
[56] Barack Obama, “Remarks of President Barack Obama: Address to Joint Session of Congress,” Whitehouse.gov, February 24, 2009, www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/remarks-president-barack-obama-address-joint-session-congress.
[57] “Obama Lowers Temperature Against Outsourcing,” Economic Times, March 28, 2009.
[58] Office of the Press Secretary, “Leveling the Playing Field: Curbing Tax Havens and Removing Tax Incentives for Shifting Jobs Overseas,” U.S. Department of the Treasury Press Center, May 4, 2009, www.treasury.gov/press-center/press-releases/Pages/tg119.aspx.
[59] Jackie Calmes and Edmund Andrews, “Obama Seeks to Curb Foreign Tax Havens,” New York Times, May 4, 2009, www.nytimes.com/2009/05/05/business/05tax.html?pagewanted=all&_r=1&.
[60] Kate Ackley, “Offshore Accounts Present a Taxing Situation,” Roll Call, May 6, 2009; “Bond, Thune Spearhead Efforts to Gut Foreign Tax Provisions from Bill,” Inside U.S. Trade, June 18, 2010.
[61] Neil King and Elizabeth Williamson, “Business Fends Off Tax Hit: Obama Adminis- tration Shelves Plan to Change How U.S. Treats Overseas Profits,” Wall Street Journal, October 13, 2009.
[62] King and Williamson, “Business Fends Off Tax Hit.”
[63] Obama administration White House official, interview by author, April 14, 2017.
[64] Obama administration White House official, interview.
[65] John D. McKinnon, “Plan Would Raise Taxes on Businesses,” Wall Street Journal, February 2, 2010, www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052748704107204575039073372259004.
[66] Shailagh Murray, “In Senate and on Trail, Democrats Target Jobs Moving Abroad,” Washington Post, June 9, 2010.
[67] Richard Trumka, “Statement by AFL-CIO President Richard Trumka on the Promoting American Jobs and Closing Tax Loopholes Act,” AFL-CIO, May 24, 2010, http://ftp.workingamerica.org/Press-Room/Press-Releases/Statement-by-AFL-CIO-President-Richard-Trumka-on-t14.
[68] 引用自Murray, “In Senate and on Trail, Democrats Target Jobs Moving Abroad”。
[69] “Bond, Thune Spearhead Efforts to Gut Foreign Tax Provisions from Bill.”
[70] Peter Schroeder, “Extender Efforts Hit Roadblock as Senate Tables Tax Package,” Bond Buyer, June 28, 2010.
[71] “Amendments Submitted and Proposed,” Congressional Record, 111th Cong. 156, no. 115 (August 2, 2010): S6586–93.
[72] Martin Vaughan, “Businesses Split Over Tax Credits,” Wall Street Journal, August 4, 2010.
[73] “The Eternal ‘Emergency,’” Wall Street Journal, August 6, 2010.
[74] FAA Air Transportation Modernization and Safety Improvement Act of 2010, H.R. 1586, 111th Cong. (2010), www.govtrack.us/congress/bills/111/hr1586.
[75] Ronald Brownstein, “Back to Basics,” National Journal, September 9, 2010.
[76] Creating American Jobs and Ending Offshoring Act of 2010, S.3816, 111th Cong. (2010), www.govtrack.us/congress/bills/111/s3816.
[77] Philip J. Bond, “Opposition to S.3816,” September 27, 2010, www.techamerica.org/content/wp-content/uploads/2010/09/9-27-10_S3816.pdf.
[78] Jennifer Liberto and Dana Bash, “Bill to Hike Taxes on Overseas Jobs Fails Senate Test Vote,” CNN, September 28, 2010, http://money.cnn.com/2010/09/28/news/economy/Outsource_jobs_bill_dead/.
[79] Richard Trumka, “Statement by AFL-CIO President Richard Trumka on Creating American Jobs and Ending Offshoring Act,” AFL-CIO, September 28, 2010, www.aflcio.org/Press-Room/Press-Releases/Statement-by-AFL-CIO-President-Richard-Trumka-on-C8.
[80] Melanie Trottman, “Web Tool Could Help Boost Union Voter Turnout,” Wall Street Journal, October 7, 2010.
[81] Marschall and Clawson, “Sending Jobs Overseas: The Cost to America’s Economy and Working Families,” 22.
[82] Daniel Marschall, legislative and policy specialist for workforce issues, AFL-CIO, inter- view by author, December 18, 2014.这些是马歇尔的个人观点，不是作为AFL-CIO的发言人发表讲话。
[83] Patrick Thibodeau, interview by author, September 8, 2015.作为《计算机世界》（Computerworld）驻华盛顿记者锡伯杜已报道离岸外包问题十多年。
[84] Bring Jobs Home Act of 2011/12, S.3364, 112th Cong. (2011/12), www.congress.gov/bill/112th-congress/senate-bill/3364.
[85] Bring Jobs Home Act of 2013/14, S.2569, 113th Cong. (2013/14), www.congress.gov/bill/112th-congress/senate-bill/2569.
[86] National Foundation for American Policy, NFAP Policy Brief: Anti-outsourcing Efforts Down but Not Out (Arlington, VA: National Foundation for American Policy, April 2007), 2, 4, www.nfap.com/pdf/0407OutsourcingBrief.pdf.
[87] Greg Schneider, “Anxious About Outsourcing: States Try to Stop U.S. Firms from Sending High-Tech Work Overseas,” Washington Post, January 31, 2004.
[88] 引用自Carolyn Duffy Marsan, “A Political Hot Potato: Legislatures Juggle Offshore Outsourcing Regulations,” Network World, July 5, 2004。
[89] 引用自Block, “Analysis: Industry Groups Fight Anti-outsourcing Legislation”。
[90] National Foundation for American Policy, “Anti-Outsourcing Efforts Down but Not Out,” 2–3.
[91] Michael Schroeder, “States’ Efforts to Curb Outsourcing Stymied: Business Groups Take the Lead in Weakening Attempts to Limit Work from Moving Abroad,” Wall Street Journal, April 16, 2004.
[92] 引用自Schroeder, “States’ Efforts to Curb Outsourcing Stymied”。
[93] Harris Miller, interview.
[94] 如果在美国境内无法提供服务或者法律的适用会违反联邦政府的任何拨款、资金或财政援助的条款，法律允许豁免。参见Service Contract Requirements for the Performance of Service Contracts Within the United States, Pub. L. No. 2005, c. 92 (New Jersey, 2005), www.njleg.state.nj.us/bills/BillView.asp。
[95] Michael Schroeder, “States Fight Exodus of Jobs: Lawmakers, Unions Seek to Block Outsourcing Overseas,” Wall Street Journal, June 3, 2003.
[96] Bill Tucker, “Job Creation Stalls: Interview with Commerce Secretary Don Evans,” Lou Dobbs Tonight (CNN, January 9, 2004).
[97] Schroeder, “States Fight Exodus of Jobs.”
[98] Schneider, “Anxious About Outsourcing.”
[99] 引用自Schneider, “Anxious About Outsourcing”。
[100] James E. McGreevey, The Confession (New York: Harper Collins, 2006), 223.
[101] 引用自“McGreevey Edict Restricts Outsourcing by Agencies,” Congress Daily, September 13, 2004。
[102] Shirley Turner, New Jersey state senator, interview by author, September 11, 2015.
[103] David Kocienieski, “For Trenton’s Lame Duck, the Question Is, ‘How Lame?,’” New York Times, September 12, 2004.
[104] “McGreevey Edict Restricts Outsourcing by Agencies.”
[105] 引用自Josh Gohlke,“Cipel Was No Security Risk, McGreevey Says: Governor Speaks of Former Aide by Name for First Time,” Record, September 10, 2004.
[106] Shirley Turner, interview.
[107] Shirley Turner, interview.
[108] “New Jersey Governor Quits, Comes Out as Gay,” CNN, August 13, 2004, http://edition.cnn.com/2004/ALLPOLITICS/08/12/mcgreevey.nj/.
[109] LexisNexis State Net database, accessed August 14, 2015.
[110] Patrick Thibodeau, “Ohio Bans Offshoring as It Gives Tax Relief to Outsourcing Firm,” Computerworld, September 7, 2010, www.computerworld.com/article/2515465/it-outsourcing/ohio-bans-offshoring-as-it-gives-tax-relief-to-outsourcing-firm.html.
[111] Factiva数据库中包含“离岸外包”一词或“外包”一词以及“国家”和“法案”的美国文章数量在2004年达到3 441篇，并且此后每年下降到不到2 000（除了2010年和2012年的上升，总数分别为2 117和2 504）。