“9·11”事件发生后的几年，由高等教育集团主导的HTC致力于确保美国对外国学生保持开放。在袭击事件发生后不久，高等教育集团的官员面临暂停学生签证的提议，该签证将在短期内阻止外国学生流入，并对美国长期致力于国际化教育的承诺提出严重质疑。面对这一提议，HTC所面临的来自其他团体有组织的反对微不足道。因此，HTC的努力非常成功。在接下来的几年，外国学生的涌入将不可避免地呈下降趋势，部分原因是签证的拒签率提高、审核延误以及这些问题在国外产生的负面影响。2005年出现了新的出口管制的可能性。为了应对这些挑战，高等教育团体直接与政府部门合作，后者被迫在国家安全问题与全球化教育和学术研究的现实之间寻找平衡。HTC与政府部门之间的这种接触不在第2章所述的理论范围之内。尽管如此，HTC在此项工作中成功地引人注目，它表明高科技利益团体在影响政府部门对国家安全的态度方面非常强大。
美国针对外国学生的政策还有没有其他解释呢？战略霸权假设表明美国已经在战略上采取了行动。具体而言，战略霸权假设可以对美国的政策进行解释，这种观点解释了美国排除外国的学生将要付出多大的代价，以及美国并没有垄断高等教育，虽然这些观点似乎是合理的，但是它们忽略了一些重要因素。首先，美国有许多选择，且这些选择比全面禁止或限制外国学生的成本低很多。例如，美国的政策制定者可以限制来自某些国家的学生人数，但不限制其他国家的学生人数，以确保这些限制的成本在学生派遣国不成比例地下降。其次，尽管美国并没有垄断高等教育行业，但它确实在科学和工程学教育中占据主导地位。根据《泰晤士高等教育》2014年和2015年公布的排名，工程和技术领域全球排名前20位的大学里，美国大学占据了14位；在物理科学领域全球排名前20位的大学里，美国大学占据了13位。[86]尤其是研究生阶段的学习，美国有着很多优势。最后，针对外国学生的战略性方法意味着要为在美留学的学生创造更多就业机会。但是，正如第3章所阐述的，自2004年以来，这种机会已经被削减。综上所述，很难用战略的术语来解释美国对待外国学生的政策。
在这种情况下，舆论假设也难以阐明这一变化。“9·11”事件发生后，美国公众反对移民，并通过舆论影响政府的决策。例如，2001年10月的一项民意调查发现，58%的美国人希望移民水平下降，与4个月前的41%相比已经急剧上升。[87]在这种情况下，针对外国学生签证计划的临时暂停或限制年度上限会很受欢迎。然而，HTC依然成功地接收了大量外国学生。
在这种情况下，优先党派的假设无关紧要。劳工或公民团体对HTC没有持明显的反对意见，因此我们无法评估不同政党的相对权力如何影响他们对抗HTC的能力。
在美国政府面向外国学生的政策方面，联盟力量假设尤其无益。其中第一种假设，当HTC的双翼都积极参与时，它是最成功的。在这种情况下，高等教育部门起了带头作用，而企业部门则在后台发挥了支持作用。此外，更广泛的商业利益在此问题上并没有发挥积极的作用。但即使在一方比另一方更活跃的情况下，HTC还是取得了巨大的成功。第二种联盟力量假设——当HTC的企业联盟与其他商业利益结盟时，HTC最为成功——在这里根本不相关。
最有用的可选解释似乎来自现状假设。美国传统上并没有限制美国大学的外国学生人数，所以即使对这些学生实施临时禁令，也会与现存的政策形成明显的背离。即便如此，由于难以对外国学生实施禁令，HTC在这里没有取得成功，而HTC最后的成功是因为其劝阻了一位重要的立法者实施这样的禁令。此外，“9·11”恐怖袭击事件以后，学生签证的处理成为一项严峻的挑战，HTC面临的任务从捍卫有利的现状转变为试图改变不利的现状。HTC也成功地完成了这项任务，尽管它需要在国家安全问题上与政府部门达成合作。
如果说在“9·11”恐怖袭击事件后，高等教育团体在学生签证问题上占据了主导地位，那么在21世纪初，HTC的企业部门将会负责另一个领域：全球研发。下一章将对此进行讨论。
[1] Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), Education at a Glance 2014: OECD Indicators (Paris: OECD, 2014), 344.
[2] OECD, Education at a Glance 2014, 344.
[3] Institute for International Education, “Top Twenty-Five Places of Origin of International Students, 2014/15 and 2015/16,” Open Doors Report on International Educational Exchange (New York: Institute for International Education, 2016), www.iie.org/opendoors.
[4] Todd M. Davis, Open Doors 2000: Report on International Education Exchange (New York: Institute for International Education, 2000), 8; Hey-Kyung Koh Chin, Open Doors 2002: Report on International Educational Exchange (New York: Institute for International Education, 2002), 8.
[5] Patricia Chow and Rajika Bhandari, Open Doors 2010: Report on International Educational Exchange (New York: Institute for International Education, 2010), 5.
[6] 除非另有说明，本章遵循美国国家科学基金会的做法，认为科学与工程领域包括物理科学（包括数学和计算机科学）、自然科学、社会科学和工程学。
[7] Chad C. Haddal, Foreign Students in the United States: Policies and Legislation (Washington, DC: Congressional Research Service, 2008).
[8] U.S. Department of State, “Nonimmigrant Visa Issuances by Visa Class and by Nationality,” Travel.State.Gov, accessed September 9, 2016，https://travel.state.gov/content/visas/en/law-and-policy/statistics/non-immigrant-visas.html.
[9] Paul Stephens, “International Students: Separate but Profitable,” Washington Monthly, October 2013, www.washingtonmonthly.com/magazine/september_october_2013/features/international_students_separat046454.php?page=all.
[10] Institute for International Education, Open Doors Data: Fast Facts (New York: Institute for International Education, 2014), www.iie.org/Research-and-Publications/Open-Doors/Data/Fast-Facts; Tamar Lewin, “Foreign Students Bring Cash, and Changes: U.S. Colleges Welcome Funds, but Some In-State Applicants Feel Left Out,” International Herald Tribune, February 6, 2012.
[11] National Science Foundation, Science and Engineering Indicators 2016 (Arlington, VA: National Science Foundation, 2016), chapter 2, 71.
[12] National Science Foundation, Science and Engineering Indicators 2016, chapter 2, appendix table 27.
[13] National Science Foundation, Science and Engineering Indicators 2016, chapter 2, appendix table 27.
[14] Gnanaraj Chellaraj, Keith E. Maskus, and Aaditya Mattoo, “The Contribution of International Graduate Students to US Innovation,” Review of International Economics 16, no. 3 (August 2008): 444–62.
[15] Eric T. Stuen, Ahmed Mushfiq Mobarak, and Keith E. Maskus, “Skilled Immigration and Innovation: Evidence from Enrolment Fluctuations in US Doctoral Programmes,” The Economic Journal 122, no. 565 (2012): 1143–76.
[16] National Science Foundation, “Table 53: Doctorate Recipients with Temporary Visas Intending to Stay in the United States After Doctorate Receipt, by Country of Citizen- ship: 2007–13,” Science and Engineering Doctorates, December 2014, www.nsf.gov/statistics/sed/2013/data-tables.cfm.
[17] Dick Startz, “Sealing the Border Could Block one of America’s Crucial Exports: Education,” The Brookings Institution, January 31, 2017, https://www.brookings.edu/blog/brown-center-chalkboard/2017/01/31/sealing-the-border-could-block-one-of-americas-crucial-exports-education/.
[18] Harris Miller, president, Information Technology Association of America, 1995 to 2005, interview by author, July 1, 2015.
[19] Terry Hartle, senior vice-president, and Steven Bloom, director for federal relations, American Council on Education, interview by author, Washington, DC, September 8, 2015. 这一点是哈特尔提出的。
[20] Philip G. Altbach and Patti McGill Peterson, “Internationalize American Higher Education? Not Exactly,” Change 30, no. 4 (1998): 39.
[21] Altbach and McGill Peterson, “Internationalize American Higher Education?,” 38.
[22] Nicholas Confessore “Borderline Insanity,” Washingto Monthly, May 2002, www.washingtonmonthly.com/features/2001/0205.confessore.html.
[23] Michael S. Teitelbaum, Falling Behind? Boom, Bust, and the Global Race for Scientific Talent (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2014), 112.
[24] Robert Farley, “9/11 Hijackers and Student Visas,” Factcheck.org, May 10, 2013, ww.factcheck.org/2013/05/911-hijackers-and-student-visas/.
[25] 在“9·11”事件发生之前，申请人被告知他们申请成功。他们在佛罗里达州上的飞行学校在2002年3月收到了正式的批准函，这强调了美国移民系统的功能失调。参见Mark Potter and Rich Philips, “Six Months after Sept. 11, Hijackers’ Visa Approval Letters Received,” CNN, March 13, 2002, http://edition.cnn.com/2002/US/03/12/inv.flight.school.visas/。
[26] Thomas B. Edsall,“Attacks Alter Politics, Shift Focus of Immigration Debate,” Washington Post, October 15, 2001.
[27] Terry Hartle and Steven Bloom, interview.
[28] “Senator Feinstein Urges Major Changes in U.S. Student Visa Program,” Advocacy and Public Policymaking, September 27, 2001, http://lobby.la.psu.edu/_107th/119_Student_Visas_Security/Congressional_Statements/Senate/S_Feinstein_09272001.htm.
[29] Terry Hartle and Steven Bloom, interview.引自哈特尔。
[30] Cindy Rodriguez, “Proposed Visa Ban Dropped,” Boston Globe, November 23, 2001.
[31] David Ward, “Letter to the Senate Judiciary Committee Regarding Feinstein Proposal on Student Visas,” American Association of Collegiate Registrars and Admissions Officers, October 2, 2001, www.aacrao.org/advocacy/issues-advocacy/sevis.
[32] Mark Sherman, “Feinstein Says Moratorium on Student Visas May Not Be Necessary,” Associated Press, October 6, 2001.
[33] Sherman, “Feinstein Says Moratorium on Student Visas May Not Be Necessary.”
[34] Rodriguez, “Proposed Visa Ban Dropped.”
[35] Sherman, “Feinstein Says Moratorium on Student Visas May Not Be Necessary.”
[36] Terry Hartle and Steven Bloom, interview. 参见David Ward, “The Role of Technology in Preventing the Entry of Terrorists Into the United States,” testimony, Hearing Before the Subcommittee on Technology, Terrorism, and Government Information of the Senate Judiciary Committee, 107th Cong. (October 12, 2001), 69。
[37] Ward, “Letter to the Senate Judiciary Committee.”
[38] Cindy Rodriguez, “Congress Drops Plan to Bar Foreign Students,” Knight-Ridder Tribune Business News, November 23, 2001.
[39] Tucker Carlson and Bill Press, “Debating Immigration Policy,” Crossfire (CNN, October 24, 2001).
[40] Daniel Stein, president, Federation for American Immigration Reform, interview by author, July 2, 2015.
[41] Kevin Drew, “Terror Probe Reaches Nation’s Campuses,” CNN, October 25, 2001, http:// edition.cnn.com/2001/LAW/10/24/inv.international.students/index.html.
[42] Center for Immigration Studies, “Are Foreign Students Good for America?”(panel discussion transcript, Rayburn Building, House of Representatives, Washington, DC, June 25, 2002), www.cis.org/sites/cis.org/files/articles/2002/foreignstudents.html.
[43] Terry Hartle and Steven Bloom, interview.
[44] Stephen Yale-Loehr, Demetrios G. Papademetriou, and Betsy Cooper, Secure Borders, Open Doors: Visa Procedures in the Post–September 11 Era (Washington, DC: Migration Policy Institute, 2005), 176.
[45] Yale-Loehr, Papademetriou, and Cooper, Secure Borders, Open Doors, 178.
[46] Mark Clayton, “Academia Becomes Target for New Security Laws,” Christian Science Monitor, September 24, 2002.
[47] David Ward, “Dealing with Foreign Students and Scholars in an Age of Terrorism: Visa Backlogs and Tracking Systems,” testimony, Hearing Before the U.S. House of Representatives Committee on Science, 108th Cong. (March 26, 2003), 23.
[48] Caryle Murphy and Nurith C. Aizenman, “Foreign Students Navigate Labyrinth of New Laws: Slip-Ups Overlooked Before 9/11 Now Grounds for Deportation,” Washington Post, June 9, 2003.
[49] Yale-Loehr, Papademetriou, and Cooper, Secure Borders, Open Doors, 178.
[50] 有关最后两句话，参见Yale-Loehr, Papademetriou, and Cooper, Secure Borders, Open Doors, 177–78。
[51] Lia Steakley, Debra K. Rubin, and Peter Reina, “After 9/11, Overseas Students Find Foreigners Need Not Apply: Visa Application Hurdles Start to Ease but Long-Term Impacts Loom,” Engineering News-Record, December 6, 2004.
[52] Andrew K. Collier, “Yale Chief Hits at US Student Visa Delays,” South China Morning Post, November 14, 2003.
[53] Murray Hiebert, “United States: The Cost of Security,” Far Eastern Economic Review, November 28, 2002.
[54] James Hattori, “Intel Plans for Future,” CNN, September 14, 2002.
[55] Martin Jischke, “Addressing the New Reality of Current Visa Policy on International Students and Researchers,” testimony, Hearing Before the U.S. Senate Committee on Foreign Relations, 108th Cong. (October 6, 2004), 5–7, www.gpo.gov/fdsys/search/home.action.
[56] Terry Hartle and Steven Bloom, interview.
[57] Heather Stewart, counsel and director of immigration policy, NAFSA, interview by author, Washington, DC, September 11, 2015.
[58] Terry Hartle and Steven Bloom, interview.
[59] Heather Stewart, interview.
[60] David Ward, “Dealing with Foreign Students and Scholars in an Age of Terrorism,” 24.
[61] Diana Jean Schemo, “Problems Slow Tracking of Students from Abroad,” New York Times, March 23, 2003.
[62] Marlene Johnson, “Addressing the New Reality of Current Visa Policy on International Students and Researchers,” testimony, Hearing Before the U.S. Senate Committee on Foreign Relations, 108th Cong. (October 6, 2004), 64, www.gpo.gov/fdsys/search/home.action.
[63] Federation for American Immigration Reform, “Immigration Issues: Foreign Students,” Federation for American Immigration Reform, May 2012, www.fairus.org/issue/foreign-students. FAIR主席丹尼尔·斯坦因（Daniel Stein）后来回忆说，这一立场可能是在21世纪初期采取的。Daniel Stein, interview.
[64] Roy Beck, president, NumbersUSA, interview by author, June 13, 2015.
[65] George J. Borjas, “Rethinking Foreign Students,” National Review 17 ( June 17, 2002): 38–41.博杰斯（Borjas）后来发表的研究发现，在一所特定大学的外国学生数量的增加与该大学研究生课程中的本土白人男性学生人数之间存在负相关关系，其中“挤出效应”在精英机构中最为强烈。George J. Borjas, “Do Foreign Students Crowd Out Native Students from Graduate Programs?” Working Paper No. 10349 (Cambridge, MA: National Bureau of Economic Research, 2004), www.nber.org/papers/w10349.
[66] George J. Borjas, “An Evaluation of the Foreign Student Program,” Center for Immigration Studies (Washington, DC: Center for Immigration Studies, June 1, 2002), http://cis.org/ForeignStudentProgram.
[67] “Dealing with Foreign Students and Scholars in an Age of Terrorism: Visa Backlogs and Tracking Systems,” Hearing Before the U.S. House of Representatives Committee on Science, 108th Cong. (March 26, 2003), www.gpo.gov/fdsys/search/home.action; “Addressing the New Reality of Current Visa Policy on International Students and Researchers,” Hearing Before the U.S. Senate Committee on Foreign Relations, 108th Cong. (October 6, 2004), www.gpo.gov/fdsys/search/home.action.
[68] U.S. Department of State, “Nonimmigrant Worldwide Issuance and Refusal Data by Visa Category,” Travel.State.Gov, January 14, 2014, http://travel.state.gov/content/visas/english/law-and-policy/statistics/non-immigrant-visas.html.
[69] U.S. General Accounting Office, Improvements Needed to Reduce Time Taken to Adjudicate Visas for Science Students and Scholars (Washington, DC: U.S. General Accounting Office, February 24, 2004), 2, www.gao.gov/products/GAO-04-443T.
[70] U.S. Government Accountability Office, Streamlined Visas Mantis Program Has Lowered Burden on Foreign Science Students and Scholars, but Further Refinements Needed (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Accountability Office, February 18, 2005), 2, www.gao.gov/products/GAO-05-198.
[71] U.S. Government Accountability Office, Streamlined Visas Mantis Program Has Lowered Burden, 7.
[72] U.S. Government Accountability Office, Challenges in Attracting International Students to the United States and Implications for Global Competitiveness (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Accountability Office, June 29, 2007), 13, www.gao.gov/products/GAO-07-1047T.
[73] Marlene Johnson, “Addressing the New Reality of Current Visa Policy on International Students and Researchers,” 64.
[74] U.S. Government Accountability Office, Performance of Foreign Student and Exchange Visitor Information System Continues to Improve, but Issues Remain (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Accountability Office, March 17, 2005), 2, www.gao.gov/products/GAO-05-440T.
[75] Bureau of Industry and Security, U.S. Department of Commerce, “Revision and Clarification of Deemed Export Related Regulatory Requirements,” Federal Register, March 28, 2005.
[76] 美国法规认为一项技术的“出口”包括将其发布给美国境内的外国公民。因此，如果在特定情况下控制技术，则必须在发布之前颁发许可证。
[77] Toby Smith, Association of American Universities, and Robert Hardy, Council on Governmental Relations, interview by author, May 23, 2017.感谢史密斯和哈代向我提供了这些信件的复印件。
[78] Danielle Belopotosky, “Policy Change On ‘Deemed Exports’ Is Widely Panned,” Technology Daily PM, August 19, 2005.
[79] Bureau of Industry and Security, U.S. Department of Commerce,“Revisions and Clarification of Deemed Export Related Regulatory Requirements,” Federal Register, May 31, 2006, 30840.
[80] Robert Hardy, “Commerce Withdraws ANPR on Deemed Exports,” May 31, 2006.感谢哈代提供这一备忘录的复印件。
[81] 例如，2010—2014年，出口许可证申请总数每年从633到1 450不等。绝大多数（92%）的申请获得批准，7%的申请未经采取行动而被退回，不到1%的申请被拒绝。Bureau of Industry and Security, US. Department of Commerce, response to Freedom of Information Act request, tracking number BIS 15-136，February 11, 2016.
[82] Terry Hartle and Steven Bloom, interview.
[83] U.S. Department of State, “Nonimmigrant Worldwide Issuance and Refusal Data by Visa Category.”
[84] Jeff Allum, “Findings from the 2014 CGS International Graduate Admissions Survey—Phase II: Final Applications and Initial Offers of Admission” (Washington, DC: Council of Graduate Schools, 2014), 5.
[85] Karin Fischer, “State Department Promises Speedier Visa Review,” Chronicle of Higher Education, June 12, 2009.
[86] Times Higher Education, “World University Rankings 2014–2015,” 2014, Times Higher Edu- cation, www.timeshighereducation.co.uk/world-university-rankings/2014-15/world-ranking.
[87] Joseph Carroll, “American Public Opinion About Immigration,” Gallup.com, July 26, 2005, www.gallup.com/poll/14785/Immigration.aspx.