过去20年，美国针对技术移民政策的波动反映了HTC与其反对者之间不断变化的拉锯战。高科技公司和大学普遍支持自由主义政策并不断为之而战。反过来，抗争的成败取决于其他利益群体是否抵制。当HTC面临的阻力主要来自劳工时，它已经在很大程度上占了上风，尽管它必须在1998年和2000年接受临时措施以及上限的持续存在。相比之下，当HTC面临的阻力来自组织良好的大型公民团体时，无论劳工的立场如何，它们都未能提高开放程度。
对美国政策的另一种解释形成了令人不满意的结果。根据本书第2章所概述的战略性霸权假设，如果限制美国与中国和印度进行合作是可行的并且成本低的话，美国应该就会这样做。但是，目前尚不清楚这种方法如何解释自20世纪90年代中期以来H-1B签证上限的上升和下降。调整上限的可行性并未随着时间的推移而明显改变。虽然限制合作的成本已经发生变化，但这无法解释美国政策变化的原因。从21世纪初到2008年，随着美国经济从互联网泡沫的破灭中复苏，美国限制H-1B签证上限的成本增加。然而，在此期间，H-1B签证的上限却大幅下跌，特别是在2000年临时提高的上限失效后。更通俗地讲，如果某种现实政策推动了美国的政策，人们会认为政府部门的偏好在推动H-1B签证上限波动方面发挥了重要作用。但事实并非如此。克林顿政府对于在1998年提高H-1B签证上限并不热心，但仍然在当年提出来了。作为全面移民改革的一部分，布什政府和奥巴马政府都在试图提高H-1B签证上限，均未成功。简而言之，很难用H-1B签证上限的上升和下跌来反映国家战略。
针对移民的公众舆论也难以解释美国政策的波动。1998年9月，哈里斯民意调查（Harris Poll）针对1 000名美国成年人进行的调查显示，82%的人反对大幅提高H-1B签证的上限，只有16%的人表示赞成。[205]尽管IEEE-USA立即对这项民意调查的结果进行大范围宣传，但随后不久，众议院就通过了H-1B签证上限提高的议案。自2004年以来，公众舆论也没有为美国对技术移民的开放程度的下降提供令人信服的解释。事实上，20世纪90年代末到2008年，公众对技术移民的看法有所缓和。2007年底和2008年初进行的一项调查发现，只有40%的受访者反对增加技术移民。[206] 2013年，盖洛普民意调查（Gallup Poll）显示，76%的受访者赞成为短期技术工人增加签证。[207]同样的民意调查也发现，如果满足某些条件，大多数人都支持为无证移民提供成为公民身份的机会。简而言之，舆论无法解释为什么美国1998—2004年扩大了技术移民，但此后却没有这样做。
那么，个别政党的兴衰是如何变化的呢？优先党派假设预测，抵制HTC的劳工和公民团体的势力会随着时间的推移而发生很大的变化，这取决于主要政党的相对实力。这种观点为美国的政策提供了一定程度的参考。与2006年共和党控制参议院和众议院时相比，在2007年民主党控制两院时，劳工明显有更强的能力与HTC抗衡。相比之下，反移民公民群体在试图影响共和党控制的商会方面最难对付。但是，总体而言，即使民主党控制了白宫，劳工也一直在努力阻止HTC实现其目标。相比之下，自2005年以来，公民团体一再阻止HTC。
现状假设预测HTC在捍卫现存政策时最为成功，在尝试改变时最不成功。这种方法也难以解释本章讨论的不同结果。HTC试图在审查的这两个阶段里改变美国移民法，但在第一阶段比在第二阶段更成功。现状偏见却无法解释这些不同的结果。
在这种情况下，联盟力量假说也表现不佳。第一个联盟力量假说预测，在高科技公司和学术机构都积极参与的情况下，HTC将取得最大成功。这种联合的重要性在2000年和2004年的胜利中很明显，当时研究型大学积极支持ICT公司推动提高H-1B签证上限的计划。即便如此，2004年之后高等教育机构仍然参与其中，但在此期间开放技术移民的努力失败了。第二个联盟力量假说预测，当HTC与其他商业利益结盟时，将会大获成功。2006—2014年，当高科技公司与其他商业团体（以及拉丁裔团体和其他组织）结盟时，这种情况最为明显。然而，这些努力都没有成功。当然，关键原因在于这一时期的反对派更加强大。HTC所面临的反对派的变化能够对本章所观察的结果进行解释，其联盟实力的变化则不能。
[1] National Science Foundation, Science and Engineering Indicators 2016 (Arlington, VA: National Science Foundation, 2016), chapter 3, 101.
[2] National Science Foundation, Science and Engineering Indicators 2016, chapter 3, 104.
[3] Demetrios G. Papademetriou and Stephen Yale-Loehr, “Balancing Interests: Rethinking U.S. Selection of Skilled Immigrants” (Washington, DC: Carnegie Endowment for Inter- national Peace, 1996), 40–48.
[4] 引用自H. Rosemary Jeronimides, “The H-1B Visa Category: A Tug of War,” George- town Immigration Law Journal 7 (1993): 369。
[5] Papademetriou and Yale-Loehr, “Balancing Interests,” 82.
[6] 关于H-1B签证计划的起源，参见Jeronimides, “The H-1B Visa Category”。
[7] Bruce Morrison, testimony, Hearing Before the Committee on the Judiciary of the United States House of Representatives Subcommittee on Immigration Policy and Enforcement, 113th Cong. (March 5, 2013), 2.
[8] 莫里森最初支持H-1B签证的上限为25 000，但他随后在会议阶段将此数增加到65 000。莫里森回忆说，最初的限制是基于有关移民和归化局目前使用情况的不准确数据，并且他增加了限制，以响应政府部门的额外信息，表明目前的使用量为每年30 000~40 000个签证。Bruce Morrison, former chair, House Judiciary Committee Subcommittee on Immigration, interviewed by author, February 27, 2016.
[9] Bruce Morrison, interview. On the politics behind the Immigration Act of 1990 more generally, 参见Daniel J. Tichenor, Dividing Lines: The Politics of Immigration Control in America (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2002), 267–74。
[10] Daniel Costa, “Little-Known Temporary Visas for Foreign Tech Workers Depress Wages,” The Hill, November 11, 2014, http://thehill.com/blogs/pundits-blog/technology/223607-little-known-temporary-visas-for-foreign-tech-workers-depress.
[11] Neil G. Ruiz, Jill H. Wilson, and Shyamali Choudhury, “The Search for Skills: Demand for H-1B Immigrant Workers in U.S. Metropolitan Areas” (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution, 2012), 4, 7, 14. 这些作者估计，高等教育、政府和非营利研究机构约占2001—2010年提交的H-1B签证申请数量的10%。
[12] Ruth Ellen Wasem, Immigration: Legislative Issues on Nonimmigrant Professional Specialty (H-1B) Workers (Washington, DC: Congressional Research Service, 2004), 6.
[13] U.S. Immigration and Naturalization Service, Report on Characteristics of Specialty Occupation Workers (H-1B): Fiscal Year 2000 (Washington, DC: U.S. Immigration and Naturalization Service, 2002), 8.
[14] U.S. General Accounting Office, Immigration and the Labor Market: Nonimmigrant Alien Workers in the United States (Washington, DC: U.S. General Accounting Office, 1992), 34, www.gao.gov/assets/160/151654.pdf.
[15] U.S. Immigration and Naturalization Service, Report on Characteristics, 5.
[16] U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services, Characteristics of H-1B Specialty Occupation Workers: Fiscal Year 2015 (Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Homeland Security, 2016), 8.
[17] Liz Robbins,“New U.S. Rule Extends Stay for Some Foreign Graduates,” New York Times, March 9, 2016, www.nytimes.com/2016/03/09/nyregion/new-us-rule-extends-stay-for-some-foreign-graduates.html.
[18] Lynne Shotwell, executive director, Council for Global Immigration, interview by author, July 22, 2015.
[19] Joan Sazabo, “Opening Doors for Immigrants,” Nation’s Business, August 1, 1989.
[20] Daryl Buffenstein and Kevin Miner, Fragomen Worldwide, interview by author, February 12, 2016. Buffenstein是美国移民律师协会（AILA）的前任主席，并在国会就1990年的移民法案做证。Miner是AILA与美国劳工部联络委员会的副主席。引用自Buffenstein。
[21] Ronil Hira, “U.S. Immigration Regulations and India’s Information Technology Industry,” Technological Forecasting and Social Change 71, no. 8 (October 2004): 841.
[22] 本句话和前一句话来自作者对Daryl Buffenstein和Kevin Miner的采访。引用自Buffenstein。
[23] Hira, “U.S. Immigration Regulations,” 846.
[24] American Immigration Lawyers Association, “Analysis of the American Competitiveness in the Twenty-First Century Act,”accessed March 2, 2016，http://shusterman.com/h1b-analysisofac21.html。
[25] 引用自Cindy Rodriguez, “Foreign Workers Bill Approved,” Boston Globe, October 4, 2000。
[26] William Glanz, “High-Tech Lobbyist Counts Washington Successes,” Knight-Ridder Tribune Business News, October 14, 2000.
[27] Michael S. Teitelbaum, Falling Behind? Boom, Bust, and the Global Race for Scientific Talent (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2014), 57–58.
[28] Jason Zengerle, “Silicon Smoothies,” New Republic, June 8, 1998.
[29] Quoted in Glanz, “High-Tech Lobbyist Counts Washington Successes.”
[30] Zengerle, “Silicon Smoothies,” 21.
[31] John Simons, “Impasse on Bill to Boost Visas Persists Between Firms, U.S.,” Wall Street Journal, August 6, 1998.
[32] Zengerle, “Silicon Smoothies,” 20.
[33] Laurie P. Milton, “An Identity Perspective on the Propensity of High-Tech Talent to Unionize,” Journal of Labor Research 24, no. 1 (2003): 32.
[34] Quoted in Bill Pietrucha, “Labor Challenges High Tech Job Shortage Claims,” Newsbytes News Network, March 19, 1998.
[35] Paul Kostek, president, IEEE-USA, 1999, interviewed by author, June 29, 2015.
[36] Ana Avendano, director of immigration, 2004 to 2009, and executive assistant to the president for immigration, 2009 to 2014, AFL-CIO, interviewed by author, February 21, 2015.
[37] “FAIR Statement on the Pioneer Fund,” PR Newswire, March 4, 1998; Devin Burghart and Leonard Zeskind, “Beyond FAIR: The Decline of the Established Anti-Immigration Organizations and the Rise of Tea Party Nativism” (Kansas City, MO: Institute for Research and Education on Human Rights, 2012), 4, www.irehr.org/issue-areas/tea-party-nationalism/beyond-fair-report.
[38] Roy Beck, president, NumbersUSA, personal communication, June 18, 2015. 参见“Lott Wants Agreement with Dems on H-1B Visa Measure,” Congress Daily, September 14, 2000。
[39] Carolyn Wong, Lobbying for Inclusion: Rights Politics and the Making of Immigration Policy (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2006), 133–45.
[40] 引用自Miranda Ewell, “Clinton Opposes Higher Visa Cap; Focus on ‘Home-Grown’ Talent, Commerce Chief Says,” San Jose Mercury News, January 13, 1998。
[41] 引用自Ewell, “Clinton Opposes Higher Visa Cap”。
[42] U.S. General Accounting Office, Assessment of the Department of Commerce’s Report on Workforce Demand and Supply (Washington, DC: U.S. General Accounting Office, 1998), 2, 6, http://gao.gov/assets/230/225415.pdf.
[43] Pietrucha, “Labor Challenges High Tech Job Shortage Claims.”
[44] Simons, “Impasse on Bill to Boost Visas Persists Between Firms, U.S.”
[45] 保障措施限制了雇主将H-1B签证劳工转移到另一个雇主，要求雇主证明他们没有也不会取代美国工人，并要求雇主采取措施为需要H-1B签证的岗位招募同等或更高资格的美国工人。参见Jessica F. Rosenbaum, “Exploiting Dreams: H-1B Visa Fraud, Its Effects, and Potential Solutions,” University of Pennsylvania Journal of Business Law 13, no. 3 (2010): 802。注意，仅雇用“豁免H-1B签证劳工”（每年至少赚取60 000美元或相当于硕士学位或更高学历）的公司不受这些限制。参见U.S. Department of Labor, “Fact Sheet 62: What Are ‘Exempt’ H-1B Nonimmigrants?” Wage and Hour Division, July 2008, 1, www.dol.gov/whd/regs/compliance/FactSheet62/whdfs62Q.pdf。
[46] Tom Abate and Jon Swartz, “Eleventh-Hour Victory for Tech: Visa Increase, R&D Tax Measure in Budget Bill,” San Francisco Chronicle, October 16, 1998, www.sfgate.com/business/article/11th-Hour-Victory-For-Tech-Visa-increase-R-D-2984825.php.
[47] 有关立法程序和法案内容的实用总结，参见Jung S. Hahm, “American Competitiveness and Workforce Improvement Act of 1998: Balancing Economic and Labor Interests Under the New H-1B Visa Program,” Cornell Law Review 85 (1999): 1683–88。
[48] Mark Leibovich, “High Tech Is King of the Hill,” Washington Post, October 16, 1998.
[49] 引用自Leibovich, “High Tech Is King of the Hill”。
[50] 引用自Abate and Swartz, “Eleventh-Hour Victory for Tech: Visa Increase, R&D Tax Measure in Budget Bill”。
[51] William Branigin, “Visa Deal for Computer Programmers Angers Labor Groups,” Washington Post, September 27, 1998.
[52] 引用自Branigin, “Visa Deal for Computer Programmers Angers Labor Groups”。
[53] 引用自Branigin, “Visa Deal for Computer Programmers Angers Labor Groups”。
[54] Harris Miller, president, Information Technology Association of America, 1995 to 2005, interview by author, July 1, 2015.
[55] Teitelbaum, Falling Behind?, 113–14.
[56] American Federation of Labor and Congress of Industrial Organizations (AFL-CIO), “Immigration,” AFL-CIO, February 16, 2000, www.aflcio.org/About/Exec-Council/EC-Statements/Immigration.
[57] “House Dems, AFL-CIO Discuss H-1B Visas,” Congress Daily, March 14, 2000.
[58] Jube Shiver, “Alliance Fights Boost in Visas for Tech Workers,” Los Angeles Times, August 5, 2000, http://articles.latimes.com/2000/aug/05/business/fi-64994.
[59] Terry Costlow, “Senate Set to Vote This Week on Visa-Cap Bill; High Noon Approaches for H-1B Friends, Foes,” Electronic Engineering Times, October 2, 2000.
[60] Paul Kostek, interview.
[61] Robert Pear, “Clinton Asks Congress to Raise the Limit on Visas for Skilled Workers,” New York Times, May 12, 2000.
[62] Susan Bibler Coutin, Nations of Emigrants: Shifting Boundaries of Citizenship in El Salvador and the United States (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2007), 184–87.
[63] Bibler Coutin, Nations of Emigrants, 188.
[64] American Competitiveness in the Twenty-First Century Act of 2000, Pub. L. No. 106-313, 114 Stat. 1251 (2000), www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/BILLS-106s2045enr/pdf/BILLS-106s2045enr.pdf. 参见Carolyn Lochhead, “Bill to Boost Tech Visas Sails Through Congress,” San Francisco Chronicle, October 4, 2000, www.sfgate.com/news/article/Bill-to-Boost-Tech-Visas-Sails-Through-Congress-2735682.php。
[65] 引用自Lochhead,“Bill to Boost Tech Visas Sails Through Congress”。参见Norman Matloff,“On the Need for Reform of the H-1B Non-Immigrant Work Visa in Computer- Related Occupations,” University of Michigan Journal of Law Reform 36, no. 4 (Fall 2003): 815–914。
[66] 引用自“Analysis: Look at the Controversy Over H-1B Visas,” National Public Radio: Talk of the Nation, September 26, 2000。
[67] 引用自Costlow, “Senate Set to Vote This Week on Visa-Cap Bill”。
[68] 引用自“Analysis: Look at the Controversy Over H-1B Visas”。
[69] Marjorie Valbrun and Scott Thurm, “Foreign Workers Will Soon Get Fewer U.S. Visas,” Wall Street Journal, October 1, 2003.
[70] Jena Heath, “Congressman Switches Focus to High-Tech: Republican, New to Area, Softens Immigration Stance, Trumpets Tech,” Austin American-Statesman, July 7, 2002.
[71] Sandra Boyd, chair, Compete America, 2004 to 2006, interview by author, June 29, 2015.
[72] Sara Schaefer Munoz,“Firms Push to Expand Visa Program,” Wall Street Journal, March 11, 2004; Teitelbaum, Falling Behind?, 109.
[73] Sandra Boyd, interview.
[74] Danielle Belopotosky, “Lobbyists Push Congress for Action On H-1B Visas,” Technology Daily, November 16, 2004.
[75] Elizabeth Olson, “Congress Raises Limit on Skilled-Work Visas,” International Herald Tribune, November 24, 2004.
[76] Danielle Belopotosky, “Efforts to Change Visa Law for Skilled Workers Gains Steam,” Technology Daily, October 1, 2004; Chloe Albanesius, “Outsourcing Controversy Influences Debate On H-1B Visas,” Technology Daily, May 6, 2004.
[77] Michael Posner, “Groups Jockey for Position On Possible Boost In H-1B Visas,” Congress Daily, November 17, 2004.
[78] Personal communication from Roy Beck, president, NumbersUSA, June 18, 2015.
[79] Roy Beck, president, NumbersUSA, interview by author, June 13, 2015.
[80] 总结内容参见Richard Rulon, “Competing for Foreign Talent,” Legal Intelligencer, December 15, 2004。
[81] Glen Kessler and Kevin Sullivan, “Powell Cautious About Immigration Changes,” Washington Post, November 10, 2004.
[82] Michael Fletcher, “Bush Immigration Plan Meets GOP Opposition: Lawmakers Resist Temporary-Worker Proposal,” Washington Post, January 2, 2005.
[83] Michael Fletcher, “Bush Immigration Plan Meets GOP Opposition.”
[84] “Senator Kerry Delivers Democratic Hispanic Radio Address,” U.S. Fed News, April 1, 2006.
[85] “Compete America,” Technology Daily PM, October 4, 2005.
[86] “Compete America”; Edward Alden, “Emigrants to US Face Long Wait for Green Card,” Financial Times, October 12, 2005.
[87] Patrick O’Connor, “Anti-Immigration Groups Up Against Unusual Coalition,” The Hill, February 28, 2006; Kate Phillips, “Business Lobbyists Call for Action on Immigration,” New York Times, April 15, 2006, www.nytimes.com/2006/04/15/us/15lobby.html.
[88] Nina Bernstein, “In the Streets, Suddenly, an Immigrant Groundswell,” New York Times, March 27, 2006; Gerardo Lissardy, “Leading Hispanic Group Joins Immigrant-Rights Coalition,” EFE News Service, May 12, 2006.
[89] Jennifer Ludden, “Strange Bedfellows Join Forces for Immigration Reform,” National Public Radio: All Things Considered, January 19, 2006.
[90] Roy Beck, personal communication, June 18, 2015.
[91] “NumbersUSA Activists Squash Amnesty in Senate: Senate Rejects Cloture on Amnesty Bill 46–53,” PR Newswire, June 28, 2007.
[92] Molly Ball, “The Little Group Behind the Big Fight to Stop Immigration Reform,” The Atlantic, August 1, 2013, www.theatlantic.com/politics/archive/2013/08/the-little-group-behind-the-big-fight-to-stop-immigration-reform/278252/.
[93] 引用自Brian Mitchell, “Frist’s Border Control-Only Bill Spurs Broad Immigration Deals,” Investor’s Business Daily, March 20, 2006。
[94] 引用自Mitchell, “Frist’s Border Control-Only Bill Spurs Broad Immigration Deals”。
[95] Comprehensive Immigration Reform Act of 2006, S.2611, 109th Cong. (2006), www.congress.gov/bill/109th-congress/senate-bill/2611. 参见Wasem, Immigration, 24–25。
[96] 引用自Rachel L. Swarns, “Senate, in Bipartisan Act, Passes an Immigration Bill,” New York Times, May 26, 2006, www.nytimes.com/2006/05/26/washington/26immig.html。
[97] Suzanne Gamboa, “Senate Vote Sidetracks Immigration Compromise,” Associated Press, April 7, 2006.
[98] Jonathan Weisman and Jim VandeHei, “Immigration Bill Lobbying Focuses on House Leaders: With Senate in Hand, Bush May Face a Skeptical GOP Base,” Washington Post, May 1, 2006.
[99] Roy Beck, interview, April 3, 2015.
[100] “Address by House Speaker J. Dennis Hastert: Reflections on Role of Speaker in Modern Day House of Representatives,” U.S. Newswire, November 12, 2003.
[101] Anne C. Mukem, “Firebrand Tancredo Puts Policy Over Party Line,” Denver Post, November 27, 2005; “Rep. Tancredo Slams Senate’s Compromise on Amnesty,” U.S. Fed News, May 11, 2006.
[102] 除注明的之外，以下句子基于Roy Beck, interview, June 13, 2015。
[103] Southern Poverty Law Center, “John Tanton Is the Mastermind Behind the Organized Anti-Immigration Movement,” Intelligence Report, no. 106 (Summer 2002), www.splcenter.org/get-informed/intelligence-report/browse-all-issues/2002/summer/the-puppeteer?page=0,3.
[104] Roy Beck, interview, June 13, 2015.
[105] Jim VandeHei and Zachary A. Goldfarb, “Immigration Deal at Risk as House GOP Looks to Voters,” Washington Post, May 28, 2006.
[106] Charles Babington, “Immigration Bill Expected to Pass Senate This Week: Hastert May Block Version That Divides House GOP,” Washington Post, May 23, 2006.
[107] 引用自Babington, “Immigration Bill Expected to Pass Senate This Week”。
[108] Mike Madden, “Millions Spent Lobbying on Immigration in Last Congress,” Gannett News Service, January 26, 2007.
[109] 引用自Reinhardt Krause, “Tech Firms Pushing for More H-1B Visas for Skilled Workers,” Investor’s Business Daily, April 11, 2007。
[110] Eunice Moscoso, “Once Gung-Ho, Businesses See Flaws in Immigration Bill: Tech Sector Particularly Disturbed by Potential Changes in Visa Program,” Atlanta Journal- Constitution, June 3, 2007.
[111] Carolyn Lochhead, “Visa Plan Angers Silicon Valley,” SFGate, June 7, 2007, www.sfgate.com/politics/article/VISA-PLAN-ANGERS-SILICON-VALLEY-Immigration-2588829.php.
[112] Ana Avendano, interview, May 25, 2017.
[113] Amanda Paulson, Faye Bowers, and Daniel Wood, “To Immigrants, US Reform Bill Is Unrealistic,” Christian Science Monitor, May 21, 2007.
[114] Quoted in Ryan Lizza, “Getting to Maybe,” New Yorker, June 24, 2013, www.newyorker.com/magazine/2013/06/24/getting-to-maybe.
[115] Shailagh Murray, “Careful Strategy Is Used to Derail Immigration Bill,” Washington Post, June 8, 2007.
[116] John Stanton and Jennifer Yachnin, “Reid Plots to Block Conservatives,” Roll Call, June 18, 2007.
[117] Robert Pear, “U.S. High-Tech Firms Stymied on Immigration for Skilled Workers,” New York Times, June 25, 2007, www.nytimes.com/2007/06/25/technology/25iht-visas.4.6326165.html.
[118] Daryl Buffenstein and Kevin Miner, interview.
[119] Kathy Kiely, “Immigration Overhaul Crumbles in Senate Vote,” USA Today, June 29, 2007.
[120] Jonathan Weisman, “Immigration Bill Dies in Senate,” Washington Post, June 29, 2007, www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/06/28/AR2007062800963.html.
[121] Congressional aide, interview by author, May 24, 2017.
[122] 引用自Kiely, “Immigration Overhaul Crumbles in Senate Vote”。
[123] Dana Milbank, “Jabs and All, the Ides of March Arrives Late,” Washington Post, June 29, 2007.
[124] Roy Beck, interview by author, April 3, 2015.参见Bruce Schreiner, “National Group Takes Aim at McConnell on Immigration,” Associated Press, June 27, 2007。
[125] 引用自Nicole Gaouette, “Immigration Bill Ignites a Grass-Roots Fire on the Right,” Los Angeles Times, June 24, 2007, http://articles.latimes.com/2007/jun/24/nation/na-immig24。
[126] Stuart Rothenberg, “Heeee’s Back: The Fall and Rise of Sen. Trent Lott,” Roll Call, May 22, 2006.
[127] Milbank, “Jabs and All, the Ides of March Arrives Late.”
[128] Mitch McConnell (KY), “Immigration,” Congressional Record, 110th Cong., 153, no. 106 ( June 28, 2007): S8674.
[129] Roy Beck, interview, April 3, 2015.
[130] 引用自Heather Greenfield, “Techies ‘Disappointed’ by Immigration Bill’s Demise,” Technology Daily PM, June 28, 2007。
[131] 引用自Robert Pear, “Little-Known Group Claims a Win on Immigration,” New York Times, July 15, 2007.
[132] 引用自Gaouette, “Immigration Bill Ignites a Grass-Roots Fire on the Right”。
[133] 引用自Molly Ball, “Immigration Reformers Are Winning August,” The Atlantic, August 21, 2013, www.theatlantic.com/politics/archive/2013/08/immigration-reformers-are-winning-august/278873/。
[134] Nicholas Thompson, “Obama vs. McCain: The Wired.com Scorecard,” Wired, October 12, 2008, www.wired.com/2008/10/obama-v-mccain/.
[135] 引用自Neil Munro, “IT Industry, Hispanics Team Up On Immigration,” National Journal, April 9, 2010。
[136] 引用自Munro, “IT Industry, Hispanics Team Up On Immigration”。
[137] 引用自Munro, “IT Industry, Hispanics Team Up On Immigration”。
[138] Terry Hartle, senior vice-president, and Steven Bloom, director for federal relations, American Council on Education, interview by author, September 8, 2015.引自哈特尔。
[139] Munro, “IT Industry, Hispanics Team Up On Immigration.”
[140] National Council of La Raza, 2011 Annual Report (Washington, DC: National Council of La Raza, 2011), http://publications.nclr.org/handle/123456789/2; “Hispanic Business Mag- azine Includes 12 NCLR Affiliates Among Its Top 25 Nonprofits,” Targeted News Service, June 9, 2011.
[141] Mark Hugo Lopez, “The Hispanic Vote in the 2008 Election” (Washington, DC: Pew Research Center, November 5, 2008), www.pewhispanic.org/2008/11/05/the-hispanic-vote-in-the-2008-election/; Eric Schurenberg, “Why the Next Steve Jobs Could Be an Indian,” Mint, October 28, 2011.
[142] Munro, “IT Industry, Hispanics Team Up On Immigration.”
[143] “Sen. Chuck Grassley to Place Hold on Employment-Based Visa Bill,” NumbersUSA, November 30, 2011, www.numbersusa.com/content/news/november-30-2011/sen-chuck-grassley-place-hold-employment-based-visa-bill.html.
[144] David Bier, “High-Skilled Immigration Restrictions Are Economically Senseless,” Forbes, July 22, 2012, www.forbes.com/sites/realspin/2012/07/22/high-skilled-immigration-restrictions-are-economically-senseless/; David Bier, “Why Does the Government Care Where Immigrant Workers Were Born?” Cato Institute, January 18, 2017, www.cato.org/blog/why-does-government-care-where-immigrant-workers-were-born.
[145] Former congressional aide, interview by author, June 9, 2017.
[146] Laura Meckler, “Visas Could Aid Graduates,” Wall Street Journal, October 22, 2011.
[147] Bruce Morrison, interview.莫里森当时代表IEEE-USA。
[148] Roy Beck, interview, April 3, 2015.
[149] Chris Frates, “Why the Schumer–Smith Immigration Negotiations Broke Down,” The Atlantic, September 20, 2012, www.theatlantic.com/politics/archive/2012/09/why-the-schumer-smith-immigration-negotiations-broke-down/428835/.
[150] Suzy Khimm, “Why a Rare Bipartisan Consensus on Immigration Totally Fell Apart,” Washington Post, September 21, 2012, www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/ezra-klein/wp/2012/09/21/why-a-rare-bipartisan-consensus-on-immigration-totally-fell-apart/.
[151] Frates, “Why the Schumer–Smith Immigration Negotiations Broke Down.”
[152] Barack Obama, “Statement of Administration Policy: H.R. 6429—STEM Jobs Act of 2012,” American Presidency Project, November 28, 2012, www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=102707.
[153] Gregory Wallace and Deirdre Walsh,“House Passes Immigration Bill to Keep Science and Technology Students in U.S.,” CNN Wire, November 30, 2012.
[154] 引用自Brian Fung, “Democrats’ Dilemma on High-Skilled Immigration Reform,” National Journal, March 6, 2013。
[155] Ana Avendano, interview, February 21, 2015.参见Richard Trumka and Thomas J. Donohue, “Joint Statement of Shared Principles by U.S. Chamber of Commerce President and CEO Thomas J. Donohue and AFL-CIO President Richard Trumka,” AFL-CIO, February 21, 2013, www.aflcio.org/Press-Room/Press-Releases/Joint-Statement-of-Shared-Principles-by-U.S.-Chamber-of-Commerce-President-and-CEO-Thomas-J.-Donohue-AFL-CIO-President-Richard-Trumka。
[156] Lizza,“Getting to Maybe”; Jason Horowitz, “Marco Rubio Pushed for Immigration Reform with Conservative Media,”New York Times, February 27, 2016, www.nytimes.com/2016/02/28/us/politics/marco-rubio-pushed-for-immigration-reform-with-conservative-media.html.
[157] Center for Responsive Politics, “Lobbying Spending Database: Microsoft,” OpenSecrets. org, 2015, www.opensecrets.org/lobby/clientsum.php?id=D000000115&year=2013.
[158] Eric Lipton and Somini Sengupta, “Latest Product of Tech Firms: Immigrant Bill,” New York Times, May 5, 2013.
[159] Mark Zuckerberg,“Mark Zuckerberg: Immigrants Are the Key to a Knowledge Economy,” Washington Post, April 10, 2013, www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/mark-zuckerberg-immigrants-are-the-key-to-a-knowledge-economy/2013/04/10/aba05554-a20b-11e2-82bc-511538ae90a4_story.html.
[160] Border Security, Economic Opportunity, and Immigration Modernization Act of 2013, S. 744, 113th Cong. (2013), www.govtrack.us/congress/bills/113/s744.
[161] Border Security, Economic Opportunity, and Immigration Modernization Act of 2013.
[162] 最初的法案要求使用H-1B签证的公司首先在政府网站上宣传职位空缺30天，在雇用签证持有人之前向美国人提供优惠，并表明他们在招聘后三个月内没有解雇美国工人而去招聘来自海外的签证持有人。该法案还赋予劳工部在其制定后长达两年的审计和质疑公司招聘决策的权力。参见Fredreka Schouten, “Tech Firms Would Skirt Hiring Restrictions Under Deal,” USA Today, May 21, 2013; Lipton and Sengupta, “Latest Product of Tech Firms”。
[163] Peter Walsten, Jia Lynn Yang, and Craig Timberg, “Facebook Flexes Political Muscle with Carve-Out in Immigration Bill,” Washington Post, April 16, 2013.
[164] Ana Avendano, interview, February 21, 2015.
[165] Ana Avendano, personal communication, May 30, 2017.
[166] Ronil Hira, testimony, Hearing Before the Senate Judiciary Committee on the Border Security, Economic Opportunity, and Immigration Modernization Act, S.744, 113th Cong. (April 22, 2013), 10; Paul Roy, “Impact of U.S. Senate Bill on Outsourcing,” Mondaq Business Briefing, July 31, 2013.
[167] Dhanya Ann Thoppil and Sean McLain, “Q&A: ‘Parts of U.S. Visa Bill Discriminatory,’” Wall Street Journal, April 26, 2013. 2010年，美国提高员工数达50名的公司的H-IB和L-I签证费用后，印度公司抱怨受到了歧视，这些公司中至少有50%依赖HI-B或L-I签证。
[168] 引用自Lipton and Sengupta, “Latest Product of Tech Firms”。
[169] “Technology Leaders Urge U.S. Senate to Approve Comprehensive Immigration Reform Legislation,” Information Technology Industry Council, June 20, 2013, www.itic.org/news-events/news-releases/technology-leaders-urge-u-s-senate-to-approve-comprehensive-immigration-reform-legislation.
[170] American Council on Education, “Higher Education Associations Strongly Endorse Senate Immigration Reform Bill” (letter to the U.S. Senate), June 26, 2013, www.aau.edu/sites/default/files/AAU%20Files/Key%20Issues/Budget%20%26%20Appropriations/FY17/Endorsement-Letter-S-744_6-26-13.pdf.
[171] Ball, “Immigration Reformers Are Winning August.”
[172] Zachary A. Goldfarb and Karen Tumulty, “IRS Admits Targeting Conservatives for Tax Scrutiny in 2012 Election,” Washington Post, May 10, 2013, www.washingtonpost.com/business/economy/irs-admits-targeting-conservatives-for-tax-scrutiny-in-2012-election/2013/05/10/3b6a0ada-b987-11e2-92f3-f291801936b8_story.html.
[173] Devin Burghart, Special Report: The Status of the Tea Party Movement—Part Two (Kansas, MO: Institute for Research and Education on Human Rights, 2014), www.irehr.org/2014/01/21/status-of-tea-party-by-the-numbers/.
[174] Rebecca Kaplan, “How the Tea Party Came Around on Immigration,” National Journal, March 21, 2013.
[175] Jill Lawrence, “The Myth of Marco Rubio’s Immigration Problem,” National Journal, July 15, 2013.
[176] Lawrence, “The Myth of Marco Rubio’s Immigration Problem.”
[177] Linda Feldmann, “Is the Tea Party Running out of Steam?” Christian Science Monitor, April 12, 2014.
[178] Tea Party Patriots, “Senate Must Admit Full Costs of Immigration Bill Before Passing Another ‘Train Wreck,’ ” Tea Party Patriots, May 6, 2013, www.teapartypatriots.org/all-issues/news/senate-must-admit-full-costs-of-immigration-bill-before-passing-another-train-wreck/.
[179] Katherine Rosario, “Five Simple Signs the Senate Immigration Bill Is Bad News,” Heritage Action, April 17, 2013, http://heritageaction.com/2013/04/5-simple-signs-the-senate-immigration-bill-is-bad-news/; David Nakamura, “Conservatives Split on Immigration Bill’s Price Tag,” Washington Post, May 7, 2013.
[180] Daniel Horowitz, “Gang Immigration Bill (S.744) Is Comprehensively Flawed,” Madison Project, May 1, 2013, http://madisonproject.com/2013/05/gang-immigration-bill-s-744-is-comprehensively-flawed/.
[181] 引用自Lawrence, “The Myth of Marco Rubio’s Immigration Problem”。
[182] Burghart and Zeskind, “Beyond FAIR,” 23.
[183] Roy Beck, interview, April 3, 2015.
[184] Devin Burghart, “Mapping the Tea Party Caucus in the 112th Congress,” Institute for Research and Education on Human Rights, March 17, 2011, https://irehr.org/issue-areas/tea-party-nationalism/tea-party-news-and-analysis/item/355-mapping-the-tea-party-caucus-in-the-112th-congress.
[185] Laura Meckler, “Immigration-Bill Pressure Backfires: Overhaul Backers Target Majority Whip, but Tactic Provokes Response from Opponents,” Wall Street Journal, December 25, 2013, www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052702304244904579276403694719232.
[186] Quoted in Meckler, “Immigration-Bill Pressure Backfires.”
[187] Meckler, “Immigration-Bill Pressure Backfires.”
[188] Michael D. Shear and Ashley Parker, “Boehner Is Said to Back Change on Immigration,” New York Times, January 1, 2014, www.nytimes.com/2014/01/02/us/politics/boehner-is-said-to-back-change-on-immigration.html.
[189] Deirdre Shesgreen, “Immigration Reform Critics Blast Boehner’s Remarks,” Gannett News Service, April 25, 2014.
[190] Roy Beck, interview, April 3, 2015.
[191] Janet Hook, “Tea Party Faces Test of Its Clout in Primaries,” Wall Street Journal, February 25, 2014.
[192] Steven Rosenfeld, “The GOP’s Vicious Internal War: Republican Establishment Trying to Exile Tea Partiers and Extremists,” AlterNet, February 12, 2014, www.alternet.org/tea-party-and-right/gops-vicious-internal-war-republican-establishment-trying-exile-tea-partiers-and.
[193] Craig Lindwarm, Director for Congressional and Governmental Affairs, Association for Public and Land Grant Universities, interview by author, September 11, 2015.
[194] Scott Corley, executive director, Compete America, interview by author, May 18, 2017.
[195] Jonathan Weisman, “Boehner Doubts Immigration Bill Will Pass in 2014,” New York Times, February 6, 2014, www.nytimes.com/2014/02/07/us/politics/boehner-doubts-immigration-overhaul-will-pass-this-year.html.
[196] Shear and Parker, “Boehner Is Said to Back Change on Immigration.”
[197] 引用自Laura Meckler,“House Immigration Bills Are Still in the Mix,”Wall Street Journal, April 18, 2014, www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052702304626304579508091839546088。
[198] Shesgreen, “Immigration Reform Critics Blast Boehner’s Remarks.”
[199] Gail Russell Chaddock, “Eric Cantor Upset Stuns GOP, Revives Tea Party,” Christian Science Monitor, June 11, 2014, www.csmonitor.com/USA/Elections/2014/0611/Eric-Cantor-upset-stuns-GOP-revives-tea-party.
[200] 例如，APLU建议优先考虑向美国大学的毕业生分配H-1B签证。Craig Lindwarm，interview.
[201] Obama administration White House official, interview by author, April 14, 2017.
[202] Office of the Press Secretary, “Fact Sheet: Immigration Accountability Executive Action,” White House, November 20, 2014, https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/the-press-office/2014/11/20/fact-sheet-immigration-accountability-executive-action.
[203] Felicia Escobar Carrillo, special assistant to the president for immigration policy, 2014 to 2017, interviewed by anothor, May 18, 2017.
[204] 引用自Jessica Meyers, “Tech Companies See Few Big Gains in Obama’s Executive Action,” Boston Globe, November 24, 2014, www.bostonglobe.com/news/nation/2014/11/24/tech-companies-see-few-big-gains-obama-executive-action/dauDJujkOhe1qx5 ZQTScoM/story.html。
[205] Chris Currie, “U.S. Public Overwhelmingly Opposed to H-1B Visa Expansion,” IEEE- USA, September 16, 1998, www.ieeeusa.org/communications/releases/_private/1998/pr091698.html.
[206] Jens Hainmueller and Michael J. Hiscox, “Attitudes Toward Highly Skilled and Low- Skilled Immigration: Evidence from a Survey Experiment,” American Political Science Review 104, no. 1 (February 2010): 7.
[207] Andrew Dugan, “Passing New Immigration Laws Is Important to Americans,” Gallup. com, July 11, 2013, www.gallup.com/poll/163475/passing-new-immigration-laws-important-americans.aspx.